[DSRP Evidence](https://dsrpevidence.org/)

# Differing views: Can chimpanzees do Level 2 perspective-taking?

## Details

**Authors** Karg et al.

**Year** 2016

**Publisher** Animal Cognition

**Discipline** Biology

[Read it at the publisher](https://doi.org/10.1007/s10071-016-0956-7) 
10.1007/s10071-016-0956-7

## In authors' words

### Abstract

Although chimpanzees understand what others may see, it is unclear whether they understand how others see things (Level 2 perspective-taking). We investigated whether chimpanzees can predict the behavior of a conspecific which is holding a mistaken perspective that differs from their own. The subject competed with a conspecific over two food sticks. While the subject could see that both were the same size, to the competitor one appeared bigger than the other. In a previously established game, the competitor chose one stick in private first and the subject chose thereafter, without knowing which of the sticks was gone. Chimpanzees and 6-year-old children chose the 'riskier' stick (that looked bigger to the competitor) significantly less in the game than in a nonsocial control. Children chose randomly in the control, thus showing Level 2 perspective-taking skills; in contrast, chimpanzees had a preference for the 'riskier' stick here, rendering it possible that they attributed their own preference to the competitor to predict her choice. We thus run a follow-up in which chimpanzees did not have a preference in the control. Now, they also chose randomly in the game. We conclude that chimpanzees solved the task by attributing their own preference to the other, while children truly understood the other's mistaken perspective.

### What they set out to do (purpose)

To test whether chimpanzees can take another agent's specific visual viewpoint (Level 2), not just what another can see.

### What they found (results)

Chimpanzees solved a competitive task by projecting their own preference rather than truly representing how identical sticks looked different from the competitor's position, whereas 6-year-olds showed genuine Level-2 perspective-taking.

## Commentary

### In short

Perspective-taking means representing a scene from another's point of view.

### In more detail

Perspective-taking as computing what the world looks like from another's viewpoint has a graded structure differing across species — the point/view distinction as a testable operation. Purpose: To test whether chimpanzees can take another agent's specific visual viewpoint (Level 2), not just what another can see. Finding: Chimpanzees solved a competitive task by projecting their own preference rather than truly representing how identical sticks looked different from the competitor's position, whereas 6-year-olds showed genuine Level-2 perspective-taking. [Added 2026-07-30 as new evidence beyond the original 109; DSRP structural basis: P axiom (Point and View): Level-2 perspective-taking is exactly representing a scene from another point (ṗ) with a different view (v).]

**Patterns it shows** P

**Added** 2026-07-30

**How to cite this** Karg et al. (2016). Differing views: Can chimpanzees do Level 2 perspective-taking?. Animal Cognition.