The Universal & Atomic Elements of Organization
A falsifiable scientific theory proposing that the same irreducible structures organize both thought and reality — from the quantum to the social scale.
O-Theory proposes that four irreducible structures — Distinctions, Systems, Relationships and Perspectives (DSRP) — form the universal grammar of organization. Rather than being merely useful ways of thinking, these structures are hypothesized to be the atomic elements from which every organized phenomenon emerges, whether in cognition, biology, physics, mathematics, society, or the cosmos.
| D | S | R | P |
| Distinctions | Systems | Relationships | Perspectives |
| Identity ↔ Other | Part ↔ Whole | Action ↔ Reaction | Point ↔ View |
| D := (i ↔ o) | S := (p ↔ w) | R := (a ↔ r) | P := (ṗ ↔ v) |
This is a living scientific evidence compendium: an open, continually evolving collection of independent empirical research, formal theory, mathematical proofs, cross-disciplinary analyses, applications, critiques, and proposed falsifications. Every entry is included because it supports, refines, challenges, or attempts to falsify the theory.
Scientific theories are strengthened not only by evidence that confirms their predictions, but also by surviving attempts to falsify them. This compendium brings both together: independent evidence from researchers who were not testing DSRP and proposed counterexamples evaluated against the formal theory.
One counterexample is enough to falsify O-Theory. Until then, the question remains: do the same four structures organize everything from quantum systems to human thought?
Independent convergence is one of the strongest forms of scientific evidence because researchers arrive at the same conclusion while investigating different questions for different reasons.
The number is not the point. Researchers in different fields, studying different questions with different methods, repeatedly arrived at the same structural predictions—almost always without testing DSRP or using its language.
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This compendium began as the peer-reviewed literature review “A Literature Review of the Universal and Atomic Elements of Complex Cognition,” published in the Journal of Systems Thinking with 109 studies. That paper is the peer-reviewed foundation. What you see here is its living, continuously updated version . New studies are checked before they are added, and the collection now holds and keeps growing. Open any card to see what the researchers found, why it bears on DSRP, and where the original review discusses it, the fuller account.
The collection is updated continuously, so the citation carries the date you consulted it rather than a study count — the count changes weekly, and putting it in the reference would make the same collection look like a different work to everyone who cites it. To cite a single claim or study, use its own address: every one has a permanent link.
This is the adversarial half of the compendium. Where the evidence track asks what converges on DSRP, this one asks what would end it: a single organized phenomenon whose structure needs a fifth pattern, a ninth element, or a fifth structural dynamic. It holds written up from candidates across territories, and resolutions — the general answers those cases settle against. Every case is published whether it held or failed, including the ones still open.
Cite this rather than the evidence collection when the point is what survived attack. The two are separate works with separate addresses: one asks what converges on the theory, the other asks what would end it, and a reference to the first does not support a claim about the second. Case and resolution numbers change when the record is revised, so cite a case by its own permanent link rather than by number.
This collection is meant to keep growing. Send us a study, paper, book or critique that bears on DSRP, whether it supports the theory or cuts against it, and we will read it and decide whether it belongs.
Authors J. Kamulali, V. Adibekyan, B. Nsamba, S. G. Sousa, T. L. Campante, A. Weiss, B. Kabugho, N. Moedas, N. C. Santos, O. Trust
Year 2026
Publisher Astronomy & Astrophysics
Kind of work article
Discipline Astronomy
Applied false
Read it at the publisher 10.1051/0004-6361/202557554
Context. The radius valley, a deficit in the number of planets with radii around 2 R⊕, was observed among exoplanets that have sizes of ≲5 R and orbital periods of <100 days by NASA's Kepler mission. This feature separates two distinct populations: super-Earths (rocky planets with radii ≲1.9 R⊕) and sub-Neptunes (planets with substantial volatile envelopes and radii ≳2 R⊕). The valley has been proposed to stem from either planet formation conditions or evolutionary atmospheric loss processes. Disentangling these mechanisms has led to numerous studies of population-level trends, although the resulting interpretations remain sensitive to sample selection and the robustness of host-star parameters. Aims. Our aim is to re-examine the existence and depth of the radius valley, and how its location varies with orbital period, incident flux, stellar mass, and stellar age. Methods. We derived robust fundamental stellar parameters of 1221 main-sequence stars (hosting 1405 confirmed planets) from the SWEET-Cat database using a grid-based machine-learning tool (MAISTEP), which incorporates effective temperatures and metallicities from spectroscopy, as well as Gaia-based luminosities.
To re-examine the existence and depth of the exoplanet radius valley and test how its location depends on orbital period, incident stellar flux, stellar mass, and stellar age.
1,221 main-sequence FGK host stars hosting 1,405 confirmed exoplanets from the SWEET-Cat database, narrowed to a final analysis sample of 893 planets around 779 stars.
Stellar parameters were derived with a machine-learning grid-based tool (MAISTEP) combining spectroscopic temperatures and metallicities with Gaia luminosities, then the radius-valley location and depth were modeled as a function of orbital period, incident flux, stellar mass, and stellar age.
The radius valley was confirmed near 2 Earth radii and found to become shallower and shift to larger radii with increasing host-star age, a pattern favoring core-powered mass loss over photoevaporation as the dominant mechanism separating rocky super-Earths from sub-Neptunes.
The finding treats the radius valley as a genuine distinction separating two planet populations and shows the position of that boundary is governed by a relationship with stellar age, evidence for a specific causal mechanism reshaping the boundary over time.
Patterns it shows D, R
Added 2026-09-28
How to cite this J. Kamulali, V. Adibekyan, B. Nsamba, S. G. Sousa, T. L. Campante, A. Weiss, B. Kabugho, N. Moedas, N. C. Santos, O. Trust (2026). Revisiting the exoplanet radius valley with host stars from SWEET-Cat. Astronomy & Astrophysics.