[DSRP Evidence](https://dsrpevidence.org/)

# Longitudinal Relations Among Theory of Mind, Advanced Theory of Mind, and Executive Function From Ages Four to Seven

Osterhaus et al., 2026, Developmental Science — Psychology

Patterns: [Perspectives](https://dsrpevidence.org/pattern/perspectives)

## In short

Children develop the ability to take perspectives on other minds (perspectives on perspectives).

## What they found (results)

Tracking 203 children at ages 4, 5.5, 7.5, early theory-of-mind and age-4 executive function predicted advanced theory of mind; latent classes revealed distinct trajectories including 'partial achievers.'

## What they set out to do (purpose)

To chart longitudinal relations between basic ToM, advanced ToM, and executive function across early childhood.

## In more detail

The capacity to represent another mind's perspective (beliefs, knowledge) develops in a structured, foundational sequence — perspective-taking as a real, measurable, growing competence. Purpose: To chart longitudinal relations between basic ToM, advanced ToM, and executive function across early childhood. Finding: Tracking 203 children at ages 4, 5.5, 7.5, early theory-of-mind and age-4 executive function predicted advanced theory of mind; latent classes revealed distinct trajectories including 'partial achievers.' [Added 2026-07-30 as new evidence beyond the original 109; DSRP structural basis: P axiom (Transformability / Recursion): advanced ToM is taking perspectives on perspectives — recursive point/view framing developing over time.]

## Abstract

This longitudinal study examined the developmental relations between first‐order Theory of Mind (ToM), advanced ToM, and executive function (EF) from ages 4 to 7.5. Two‐hundred‐three German children were assessed at ages 4, 5.5, and 7.5 on measures of ToM, EF (working memory, inhibition, cognitive flexibility), general cognition, and language. Using regression, structural equation modeling (SEM), and latent class analysis, we investigated whether early ToM and EF predict advanced ToM performance and how the developmental pathways unfold. We found significant concurrent relations between ToM and EF at all time points, as well as a predictive relation from EF at age 4 to advanced ToM at age 7.5. ToM at age 4 also significantly predicted ToM at age 7.5, suggesting early ToM lays a foundation for later conceptual growth. Cross‐lagged SEM revealed that EF at age 4—but not at 5.5—predicted advanced ToM, indicating EF may support ToM development at key transition points. Latent class analysis identified four ToM profiles: consistently high performers, late bloomers, partial achievers, and inconsistent performers. Early language skills and later inhibition differentiated these groups; general cognition played a lesser role. These findings support a hybrid account of ToM development: early conceptual understanding is foundational for later competence, but qualitative shifts are required to master more complex ToM forms. EF and language appear as critical supports for ToM development, especially during periods of conceptual change. This study contributes to a more nuanced view of how domain‐general and domain‐specific processes interact in the development of complex social cognition. Summary Longitudinal study of Theory of Mind (ToM), advanced ToM, and executive function (EF) from ages 4 to 7.5. ToM and early EF at age 4 significantly predicted advanced ToM performance at age 7.5, independent of general cognitive ability. Latent class analysis identified four distinct developmental ToM pathways, including partial achievers and inconsistent performers. Findings support a hybrid view: early conceptual continuity lays a foundation, but later conceptual change is needed for advanced mental state reasoning.

These researchers were not testing DSRP. The finding is theirs; the correspondence to DSRP is drawn by this site.

[Source](https://doi.org/10.1111/desc.70173)